The primary intracellular pathways involved in adaptive immunity are T-cell receptor and B-cell receptor signaling (6).
B cell receptor signaling is activated when an antigen binds to the B-cell receptor. This activation, in turn, triggers a sequence of intracellular events that lead to the internalization of the antigen (7). The internalized antigen is then processed and presented to T cells. B-cell receptor (BCR) signaling is necessary for B-cell development and adaptive immunity. Dysregulated B cell signaling significantly contributes to tumor survival in cancers including B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphomas (B-NHLs) (8).
T cell receptor signaling is activated when the T cell receptor binds to the antigenic peptide. Upon T-cell activation, changes occur at the plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus that result in T cells undergoing clonal expansion and differentiation, enabling them to become effector cells. T cell receptor signaling plays a crucial role in T cell development, activation, and immune tolerance. However, when T-cell receptor signaling is dysregulated, it can lead to anergy or autoimmunity (9).Other pathways involved in adaptive immunity include toll-like receptor signaling, CD28 costimulatory signaling, and CD40 signaling.